An Analysis on Job Satisfaction Factors of Local Government Employees:

｢지방정부연구｣ 제9권 제4호(2005 겨울) : 343～366

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A Confirmatory Factor Analysis Approach*

지방공무원의 직무만족도 영향변인 분석:

확인적 요인분석 접근

Kim, Dae-Won(Silla Uvniversity)

Park, Cheol-Min(Busan Human Resources Development Institute)

* Authors would like to thank two anonymous referees for their helpful comments and statistical error corrections on an earlier draft. Giving also thanks to Master Lee working as a researcher in Busan Human Resources Development Institute for providing data used in the analysis. All remaining errors are our responsibility.

행정서비스의 질적수준은 행정주체인 관료들의 의식여하에 따라 좌우된다는 것은 재론의 여지가 없다. 선후진국을 막론하고 정도의 차이는 있지만 공무원들이 국민의 공복으로서의 사명감은 부족할 뿐만 아니라 국가에 따라서는 부패의 온상으로 치부되기도 한다. 본 연구는 공무원들의 직무만족도는 행정의 능률성과 직결된다는 전제하에, 부산지역 공무원들을 대상으로 직무만족도에 영향을 미치는 변인, 그 크기 및 방향 분석에 목적을 둔다. 영향변인으로는 크게 조직특성변인과 개인특성변인으로 구분하였다. 조직특성변인은 보수만족, 승진만족, 인지된 조직후원, 동료관계, 상사관계, 직무의미성, 성과평가가 도입되었으며, 개인특성변인으로는 성, 연령, 교육수준, 직무수준, 공공의식 등이 도입되었다. 분석결과 연령과 교육수준을 제외한 변인들이 통계적 유의성이 존재하는 것으로 나타났다. 본 연구는 외생변인들을 조직특성변인, 개인특성변인에 한정한 한계는 있지만, 이를 구성하는 세부변인들이 요인분석을 통해 체계적으로 구성되었다는 점, 그리고 관련변인들이 직무만족에 미치는 영향력을 실증분석을 통해 규명함으로써 연구결과의 합리화를 추구하고 있다는 점에서 연구가치는 있는 것으로 생각된다.

주제어 : 직무만족, 조직특성, 개인특성, 요인분석, 회귀분석

Ⅰ. Introduction

For the efficiency of organizations, it is natural that the members of the organization have a strongly intentional attitude on their jobs, which can be developed by job satisfaction. Many assume that work which enables satisfaction of one's needs help the members increase the attitude toward their job, while work without these characteristics limits the development of human potential, stunts productivity, and brings damaging effects to the functions of organizations. It has been empirically proved that the more positive and motivated employees' attitude, the higher the efficiency of an organization regardless of the public or the private property. This means that the work environment such as relationship among co-workers, supervisor's leadership, promotion, pay, and work level affect the workers' job attitude, which seems to be very important for increasing efficiency of the organization. It is, accordingly, not an exaggerated claim to say employees' attitude is one of the most important measures by which an organization's efficiency is judged, regardless of the public or private organization. Although there is still something in question, it is clear that job satisfaction affects organizational outcomes such as turnover intentions (Bluedorn, 1982; Price & Mueller, 1981; Porter et al.,1974; Larry & Hazer, 1986; Bartol, 1979), absenteeism (Boxx, Odam & Dune, 1991), and work performance (Albert & Levine, 1988).

Like this, many researchers and practitioners - focusing on private sector and federal of central government - have had a widespread interest in job satisfaction and produced lots of works about that, less attention has been focused on reviewing variation in job satisfaction among government employees, especially local public employees.

Accordingly, to our knowledge, A few developed an empirical model to analyze the antecedents of job satisfaction among local employees yet, which is very important for understanding the relationship between local government employees and their attitude toward performance. This is to clear the fact that local government employees represent one of the fastest growing sectors in Korean local government. Over hundreds of thousands of people are currently employed by local governments throughout Korea, an increase of over 10 percent in the past 10 years.

An Analysis on Job Satisfaction Factors of Local Government Employees

｢지방정부연구｣ 제9권 제4호(2005 겨울)

In recent years, the continued transfer of central government power to local levels confirms the continued growth of local  government employees for years to come.

Of course, there are some scholars assuming that the lack of job satisfaction research concerning public employees derives from the conviction that the work motivations and attitudes of those employed in the public sector are essentially the same as their private sector counterparts(Perry and Wise, 1990). Yet, it is not doubtful that there are some clear difference between private and public sector employees(especially local government employees including metropolitan city workers of Korea) in terms of organizational behavior and motivational characterizations(Testa, 1999).

This makes a rigid distinction from pre-existing researches, which explain the just relationship between job satisfaction and its affecting factors in private sector. And this study also has an important difference in the method of analyzing affecting factors of job satisfaction, which accept not only affecting factors the pre-existing studies have suggested but also new factors foreign researchers and we have developed such as POS(perceived organizational support), performance appraisal, and job level. These factors are very important to understand the attitude toward their performance of local government employees, promoting local government to have the motivated commitment enable to enhance more efficiency of local government.

To improve, meanwhile, the efficiency of local government, more attention should focus on bettering public employee's own attitude toward their jobs. This means that for promoting a better and higher level motivation of public employees, job-related factors which can be various should be investigated more carefully, being important factors which determine public employees' job satisfaction and motivation. But research of all these factors is beyond this study, so it is necessary to treat it in another study.

On the other hand, public employees seem to have less job satisfaction than private employees, empirically proving that it has got public employees low efficient. Of course, many studies including Mark & Taher's research(1992) have tried to identify the causes of job dissatisfaction and low levels of public employees. One of the general consensus among these researchers has been that public employees tend to be more motivated by factors intrinsic to the work itself (job characteristics such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, and growth) than by extrinsic factors such as pay, status, and job security (Mark & Taher, 1984; Guy, 1993).

It has been said that the job satisfaction of local government employees is determined primarily by three sets of factors: job characteristics, organizational characteristics, and individual characteristics.

This study is going to analyze the variables for promoting public employees' job satisfaction, trying to identify the impacts of the major job-related factors on public sector managers' job satisfaction. The empirical researches go to show that job satisfaction factors such as pay and promotional opportunity, perceived organizational support, task significance, and relationship among co-workers have consistently significant effects on the job satisfaction of public employees. We are to try setting a theoretical model on the basis of the existing researches concerning public employees's attitude and motivation, analyzing the determinants of job satisfaction of public employees. For testing the model, we use data derived from the survey of public employees working for Busan Metropolitan city. In this article, we are about to use regression analysis to review the relative influence of 7 organizational factors and 5 demographic factors on variation in job satisfaction.

The study starts making an arrangement of the relationship among research variables, putting a series of hypotheses, providing research design such as data collection and measuring tools, reviewing an empirical results and discussing implications of the findings, and ending with conclusions.

Ⅱ. Literature Review and Hypothesis Formulation

Job satisfaction is commonly defined as the extent to which employees like their work, representing an attitude based on employee perceptions (negative or positive) of their jobs or work environments, indicating also the mental and spiritual enjoyment that one gains from his or her job through satisfaction of needs, interests and hopes. On the other hand, Williams & Anderson(1991) defines job satisfaction in relation to psychological, physiological and social factors. It is, that is to say, necessary for a person to be satisfied physically, psychologically and socially to attain job satisfaction.

There are not less than three reasons that managers must pay attention to the job satisfaction of their personnel: (1) There is much evidence that unsatisfied individuals leave organizations or resign. (2) It has been proven that satisfied staffs are in better health and have longer life expectancy. (3) The effects of job satisfaction are carried outside the boundaries of an organization, and thus the individual's private life is also influenced by job satisfaction.

Public employees are hired to perform organization related jobs based on their attitudes and behaviors to public work, playing a very important role for the improvement of the quality of life in public service. It has been said that the members of an organization are employed to perform their jobs based on the skills, knowledge, and experiences requiring for the organizational goals. However, we cannot see or feel what the job is like. Generally, for improving efficiency of an organization, it should be anteceded to understand and assess employees' job satisfaction on their jobs.

It is our view that in order to deal effectively with individuals in a job environment, one needs a basic framework for understanding human interaction in the context of organizational structures. Thus, in order to understand employees' attitudes and behavior on their jobs, it is necessary to analyze and categorize the complex interrelationships in terms of their constituent factors. According to the researchers' concerns and interests, the factors can be various and can be categorized differently.

For purposes of this study, the variable job satisfaction will refer to a general attitude that employees have about their jobs and their work environment. As a job-specific function, the level of satisfaction is based on the discrepancy between what workers expect and what they actually experience in the workplace. Job satisfaction, therefore, involving both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, is regarded as the composite of a number of moderately correlated component attitudes, such as satisfaction with pay, working conditions, promotion policy, interpersonal relationships with co-workers, and so forth.

Many researchers who studied about job satisfaction insist that affective responses to the job come thoroughly from the match between individuals' needs and characteristics of the work environment. If this is true, we should be able to design jobs and employment conditions to maximize positive affect. For understanding and predicting job satisfaction, more complex models are needed. It has been said that the most complete job satisfaction model was developed by Testa (1999) based on prior theoretical work and empirical research. The study has job satisfaction described as follows: work role (or job) outcomes, work role contributions, the frame of reference used to evaluate job outcomes, and the subjective utility of contributions and outcomes. Generally, the more a person's work environment fulfills their needs, characteristics, the greater the degree of job satisfaction. According to most of empirical research, managers of both sectors (private and public) place higher values on job characteristics such as pay, promotion, relationship among co-workers etc., identified as the major sources of job motivation and satisfaction.

For example, Salancik and Pfeffer(1978) surveyed, to determine which factors were important contributors to a positive attitude, 635 managers about their perceptions of the relationship between performance and attitude.

Of course, there are also researchers suggesting the different determinants of job satisfaction of public employees. Job satisfaction, according to some researchers' concerns and interests, can be very various and categorized into several types such as pay, promotion, benefits, working place, relationships with co-workers and supervisors, self-esteem, job level, and performance appraisal satisfaction etc.

Boxx, Odam & Dune(1991) has suggested three sets of variables: job characteristics, organizational characteristics, and individual characteristics.

On one hand, previous researches in korea on the job satisfaction of local government employees studied recently can be summarized as follows(See Table 1).

On the other hand, in recent job satisfaction researches, researchers like Reiner & Zhao(2002) have used the nine dimensions that identified as: work, pay, promotion, recognitions, benefits, working conditions, supervision, co-workers, the company, and management. The theoretical framework of this study is also partly inspired by Reiner & Zhao's  work(2002) on job attitudes, slightly quoting also from the works of Boxx, Odam & Dune(1991) and Glisson & Durick(1988). On the basis of Reiner & Zhao's work(2002), we are going to set the framework for the study and get the job satisfaction determinants classified into two types: organizational and personal characteristics.

Organizational components of job satisfaction refer to variables associated with characteristics of the organization in which the jobs are performed, while personal factors focus on characteristics of the employees who perform the jobs.

Based on the above, the study's job satisfaction factors are as follows.

<Table 1> Previous Researches(In Korea)

Researcher(year)	Influencing(or Measuring) Factor	Research Object
Lee, Sang-Cheol et al.(2005)	Job Itself, Reward, Control, Promotion, Peer	Local Government Employees
Jaegal, Don(2004)	Supervisor, Agency Relationships, Job Training, Job Content, Overall Aspects	Local Government Employees
Jaegal, Don(2002)	Speciality, Task Disorder, Organizational Support, Organizational Satisfaction, Peer Relationships, Extrinsic Rewards	Local Government Employees
Jung, Yun-Gil(2002)	Role Conflict, Role Ambiguity, Functions of Mentoring	Local Government Employees
Lee, Hee-Tae ․ Kim, Seog-Yong(2001)	- Organizational Characteristics(co-workers relationships, status stability, promotion) - Job Characteristics(job clarity, skill, significance, autonomy) - Individual Characteristics(sex, education, pay satisfaction, service career, service mind)	NGO Employees in Local Government

Organizational characteristics

1) Pay and Promotion

Many researchers working from the human relations perspective assert that experiences each member of organization have had with respect to the broader organizational environment in which jobs are performed also play an important role in the formation of job attitudes. Of those experiences, individuals are intend to be affected by their improvement and progressive factors such as pay and promotion.

Manu researchers like Emmert and Taher(1992) have shown that pay satisfaction and the need for career growth are two of the most important predictors of job satisfaction, given their strong theoretical linkage to the formation of individual job attitudes (Nachmias, 1988). For individuals dissatisfied with their pay and promotional opportunities, the costs of leaving their organizations would be greater. As a result, they are likely to develop more positive attitudes toward their jobs(Mathieu and  Zajac, 1990).

Based on the review of literature, we  propose the following two hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: There will be a positive causal relationship between satisfaction with opportunities for promotions and  job satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2: There will be a positive causal relationship between satisfaction with pay and job satisfaction.

2) Perceived Organizational Support

Perceived organizational support(POS) describes the extent to which employees believe that their employer is concerned with their well-being(Shore & Tetrick, 1991) and is influenced by aspects of the organization's treatment of the employees(Tansky & Cohen, 2001). POS is an important influence on job satisfaction. Without sufficient POS, employees may view their tasks negatively and be dissatisfied with their job. Specifically, employee' POS may be regarded as a positive response to the organization's message to employees that it cares about their well-being and appreciates their dedication(Tansky & Cohen, 2001), leading to their reciprocated concern for the organization. This leads to the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3: There will be a positive causal relationship between POS and job satisfaction.

3) Co-workers and Supervisors

Cooperative and supportive relationships with co-workers within an organization are expected to contribute to the higher level of job satisfaction. According to some studies, the members of an organization are likely to have high levels of job satisfaction if co-workers provide them support and cooperation in completing their tasks(Nachmias, 1988; Emmert and Taher, 1992). Besides, numerous researchers like  Daley(1986) and Nachmias(1988) have insisted that positive relationships between supervisors and subordinates contribute to higher levels of job satisfaction.

Peters and O'Connor(1988) also indicates that organizational variables such as co-workers and supervisors may be important predictor variables of employee attitudes, motivation, and performance.

Boxx, Odam & Dune(1991) reported that government employees who enjoyed a supportive relationship with their immediate supervisors experienced higher levels of job satisfaction than those who did not. For purposes of this study, we anticipate too, that as the quality of supervision increases, employee job satisfaction will also increase. We, therefore, propose the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4: Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they have better relationships with their co-workers, an evenly distributed workload among co-workers.

Hypothesis 5: Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they have better relationships with supervisors.

4) Task Significance

Hackman and Oldham(1976) have describe task significance as the degree to which individuals recognize their jobs make a contribution to organizational missions.

This factor affects individuals' experience of the meaningfulness of their jobs, and should have strong effects on individuals who have greater intrinsic needs. Researchers have shown that the service nature of public service results in a heavy use of professional employees, who likely have greater intrinsic needs for task significance. Given this:

Hypothesis 6: Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they perceive their jobs contribute more to organizational missions.

5) Performance Appraisal

Bretz, Milkovich & Read (1992) reexamines the importance of performance appraisal satisfaction on job satisfaction. In doing so, Bretz et al. present persuasive evidence of a significant, positive relationship between employee performance appraisal satisfaction and overall job satisfaction. We, therefore, propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 7: There will be a positive causal relationship between employee performance appraisal satisfaction and job satisfaction.

Personal Characteristics

The second most commonly investigated source of variation in job satisfaction pertains to the demographic and individual characteristics of the employees themselves. Many researchers also believe that individual attributes serve to moderate the relationship between environmental factors and job satisfaction, and thus should be included as control variables in any model of job satisfaction.

1) Gender

Historically, it has been assumed that females would report lower levels of job satisfaction than males (Testa, 1999). Of course, there have been some researches, which insists that the difference between male and female have no effect of gender on overall job satisfaction. Up to now, many studies have  shown that while women have made some progress from equal employment opportunity laws, many still perceive they are being treated unfairly concerning personnel matters. For this reason, we are going to hypothesize that there will be differences in job satisfaction based on gender. Therefore:

Kellough(1990), using meta-analysis techniques, trace the absence of gender differences in job satisfaction where it is noted that men and women began to approach parity in organizational positions held.

Hypothesis 8: There will be a significant causal relationship statistically between employee gender and job satisfaction.

2) Age

Employee age is another potential antecedent of job satisfaction that has been frequently analyzed in the job satisfaction literature. Organizational behavior researchers have found that older employees are likely to develop a better fit between personal needs and jobs/organizations than younger employees (Glick, Jenkins & Gupta, 1986). Older employees are more likely to cognitively justify remaining in the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1984). If they leave their current employers, they have limited alternative employment opportunities and greater costs than younger employees. For this reason, older employees are likely to develop more positive attitudes toward their jobs, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

For example, Dobbins, Cardy, & Platz-Vieno(1990) argue that increases in employee age are likely to be associated with enhanced positions of organizational authority, prestige, status, and confidence, which are potential contributors to job satisfaction.

However, we should take an consideration that there are also many studies opposing the effects of age on job satisfaction. Many researchers have identified either no relationship (Reiner and Zhao, 1999) or a significant negative relationship(Daley, 1986). Even though research results regarding the relationship between employee age and job satisfaction are inconsistent, we propose the following research hypothesis:

Hypothesis 9: There will be a significant causal relationship statistically between employee age and job satisfaction.

3) Education

Some researchers have argued that employees with more education can improve job satisfaction by "rationalizing" the available alternatives for changing jobs or leaving employers(O'Reilly and Caldwell, 1981). However, other researchers have maintained that more educated employees have a greater number of job alternatives and thus are less likely to become stuck in any job or organization. This becomes more plausible when we consider that more educated employees often have higher expectations that jobs or organizations may not be able to meet. This will adversely affect individual attitudes toward their jobs and organizations (Mowday, Porter, and Steers, 1982). Therefore:

Hypothesis 10: There will be a significant causal relationship statistically between employee education and job satisfaction.

4) Job Level

Researchers like Cranny et al.(1992) insisted that job level is positively correlated with job satisfaction. Higher level positions are usually associated with higher pay, autonomy, responsibility, promotion prospects, and better overall working conditions. Recently, Robie et al.(1988) have got meta-analysis examining the relationship between job level and job satisfaction with data drawn from 35 independent samples and over 18,000 respondents, concluding that as job level increased, so did job satisfaction. We presume that their conclusion might be very valid. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 11: There will be a positive causal relationship between job level and job satisfaction.

5) Public Spirit

Many organizational behavior studies have shown that individuals are attracted to organizations that they perceive as having values similar to their own, trying to choose a job suitable for their own beliefs and values(Holland, 1985; Schneider, 1987; O'Reilly, Chatman, and Caldwell, 1991).

Steven Kelman(1987) also asserted that many individuals are drawn to public service to satisfy their beliefs and desires to serve the public, not putting emphasis on self-interest maximization such as pay and promotion, but placing more emphasis on public spirit motivation. This means that public spirit might play a very important role in providing public employees with sufficient chances to satisfy their desires. On this reason, we are going to hypothesize as follows:

Hypothesis 12: Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they have stronger desires to serve the public.

Ⅲ. Research Design

1. Sampling Technique

To test above hypotheses on factors influencing variation in job satisfaction, the study used data collected from a survey of 300 local employees serving Busan metropolitan city of Korea. The survey was conducted in 2005, and the resulting sample were returned for a return rate of 71 percent.

The questionnaire was designed to measure the degree of employee's perceptions about 7 different variables including pay, promotional opportunities, perceived organizational support, co-work, supervision, task significance, performance appraisal, gender, age, education, and job level, which could affect job satisfaction. The sample is further restricted to employees who have full-time and permanent appointments with their organizations. In addition, demographic information regarding employee age and job level(supervisory versus non-supervisory) including employee's public spirit and education was also collected.

Except for the demographic and personal questions(gender, education, age, job level, public spirit), research participants were asked to respond to survey questions using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly agree" or 1 = "very dissatisfied" to 5 = "very satisfied," depending on the question. Gender and job level were dummy-coded, age was coded such that 1 = below 29 years old, 2 = 30 to 49 years old, and 3 = 50 years old or older, and education was coded that 1 = graduated from high school,  2 = 2 year associate degree; 3 = bachelor's degree; 4 = some graduate school. And public spirit was dummy-coded such that 1 = employees who valued service to others, 0 = otherwise.

2. Analysis Method

For analyzing the hypotheses of the study, we used OLS techniques, with the assumption that the error term (ei) is mean zero, independent, and identically distributed across individuals. That is, Yi = a + bXi + ei where Xi is the vector of independent variables that affect job satisfaction. To  simultaneously analyze the data, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used. All analyses were concluded at the .05 level of significance.

In the survey, employees were asked 12 different questions concerning the relationship with their job satisfaction. Although each question may be treated as an independent variable and all of them may be included in the model, doing so can lead to multicollinearity problems since these variables are undoubtedly highly correlated. To solve this problem, a factor analysis is used to group the questions into a smaller number of factors, which then can be used to measure the combined impacts of these variables. In the analysis, the maximum-likelihood method and orthogonal solution are used to rotate and extract factors at the conventional eigenvalue level. The chi-square test and scree plot of the eigenvalues suggest that all the variables can be treated as a single factor measuring the latent construct of employee-supervisor relationship.

3. Definitions of Variables

1) Dependent Variable

Job satisfaction is expressed in Five-point Likert-type responses to "I feel pleasures at my job./ I find myself worth working at my job./ I am proud of my job."

2) Independent Variables

(1) Organization Characteristics

Eight independent variables are used to test Hypotheses 1-7 concerning the likely impact of organization characteristics on job satisfaction: pay satisfaction, lack of promotion opportunity, perceived organizational support, relationship with supervisors, relationship with co-workers, task significance, and performance appraisal(See Table 2).

The responses were all measured by five-point Likert-type scales with possible responses ranging from "strongly disagree" (coded 1) to "strongly agree" (coded 5).

(2) Individual  Characteristics

Five independent variables are used to test Hypotheses 8-12 concerning the likely impact of individual characteristics on job satisfaction: gender, age, education, job level, and public spirit. Serving the public is constructed from a questionnaire item, which asked employees to mark from a list of values what they value most. Employees who responded that they valued "service to others" some of them were assigned a value of one, and zero otherwise.

<Table 2> Items of Variables

Variable Name		Items of Variables	Source
Dependent Variable	Job Satisfaction	#A. I feel pleasures at my job.	Park, Suk-Don & Kim, Kyoung Hee (2005)
		#B. I find myself worth working at my job.
		#C. I am proud of my job.
Independent Variables	Pay Satisfaction	#1. I feel satisfaction with pay compared with my work.	Emmert & Taher (1992)
		#2. I can say my salary to my friends freely.
		#3. I receive a good return for my effort.
	Promotional Opportunities	#4. Promotion opportunity is open to all members .	Mathieu & Zajac (1990)
		#5. I can expect promotion depending on my effort.
		#6. I can expect promotion within 3-5 years.
	Perceived Organizational Support	#7.The organization cares about my opinions.	Tanskey & Cohen (2001)
		#8.The organization is willing to help me when I need a special favor.
		#9.Help is available from the organization when I have a problem.
	Relationship with Co-workers	#10. I feel others in my job are friends.	Nachmias (1988)
		#11. I am willingly to help others if asked.
		#12. I have a amicable feeling for others in my job.
	Relationship with Supervisors	#13. I feel emotional attachment to my supervisors.	Nachmias (1988)
		#14. I would like to respect my supervisors as our masters.
		#15. I want to work with my supervisors for above 3 years.
	Task Significance	#16. My task is interest and diverse in public work settings.	Hackman & Oldham (1976)
		#17. My task is generally significant.
		#18. I feel my task is important work I do in this job.
	Performance Appraisal	#19. To what extent is one faithful to one's work.	Bretz, Milkovich & Read (1992)
		#20. To what extent does one work well.
		#21. To what extent does one make mistakes overall.
	Gender	1 = female, 2 = male	demographic var.
	Age	1 = 30 to 39 yrs old, 2 = 40 to 49 yrs old, 3 = 50 + yrs old
	Education	1 = graduated from high school, 2 = 2 year associate degree, 3 = bachelor's degree, 4 = some graduate school.
	Job Level	1 = non-supervisory, 2 = supervisory/management	Cranny et al. (1992)
	Public Spirit	1 = employees who valued service to others, 0 = otherwise	Chatman & Caldwell (1991)

*  1 = "strongly disagree" to 5 = "strongly agree" or 1 = "very dissatisfied" to 5 = "very satisfied"

4. Measurement of Variables

Table 3 presents the means, standard deviations, and intercorrelations among all the study variables. Because the dependent variable is measured by a five-point Likert-type scale with possible responses ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree, the mean represents the averaged responses from the employees being surveyed. Tests for multicollinearity revealed no pair of independent variables was correlated above .60, and regression of each independent variable on all remaining independent variables revealed no coefficient of determination (R2) stronger than .43. According to Bentler(1990), such results indicate that multicollinearity was not a problem in this study.

And the results show that, on average, local government employees are satisfied with their jobs (mean=3.13). With regard to pay satisfaction, the results show that, on average, local government employees feel neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with their pay (mean=2.95).

<Table 3> Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations of Study Variables

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13
Pay	2.95	0.42	1.00
Promotional Opportunities	3.01	0.84	.33	1.00
Perceived Organizational Support	2.95	0.62	.23	.32	1.00
Relationship with co-workers	2.63	0.94	.26	.14	-.23	1.00
Relationship with supervisors	2.82	0.42	.31	.38	.22	.41	1.00
Task significance	3.64	0.36	.18	.26	.15	.23	.33	1.00
Performance Appraisal	2.77	0.63	.23	.16	.23	.27	.27	.28	1.00
Gender	0.61	0.33	.28	-.27	.28	.16	-.25	.22	.26	1.00
Age	2.87	0.64	-.27	.22	.26	.24	-.23	.28	.22	.26	1.00
Education	2.61	0.89	-.22	-.17	.28	.24	-.16	.26	.21	.18	.23	1.00
Job level	1.15	0.75	.21	.19	-.23	.18	.26	.23	.27	.22	.16	.26	1.00
Public spirit	0.57	0.43	.29	.17	.26	.29	.28	.16	.28	.25	.19	.25	.22	1.00
Job Satisfaction	3.13	0.69	.30	.26	.33	.27	.31	.28	.34	.22	.26	.28	.26	.23	1.00

Note: The absolute value of correlations [greater or equal] .06 are significant at .05 level

Ⅳ. Results and Discussion

1. Validity and Reliability Test

The reliability of the measurement variables can estimated by Cronbach Alpha. As presented in Table 4 and 5, the Alphas for the dependent and independent variables are as follows: .813 for job satisfaction, .804 for pay satisfaction, .742 for promotional opportunities, .695 for perceived organizational support, .702 for relationship with co-workers, .843 for relationship with supervisors, .705 for task significance, .683 for performance appraisal. Since all of these values are above .50(Wheaton, 1987), it can be interpreted that each measurement variable is significantly reliable.

<Table 4> The Result of the Factor Analysis & Reliability Test for the Dependent Variable

Items	Job Satisfaction	Alpha
#A. I feel pleasures at my job	.668	.813
#B. I find myself worth working at my job	.816
#C. I am proud of my job	.725
Eigen value	6.773	-
Variance(%)	56.273	-
Cumulative variance(%)	56.273	-

And table 5 presents the result of a principal component factor analysis for the independent variable out of the measurement variables. As shown in table 5, the questions were classified into seven factors(Eigen Value 1.665 Cumulative Variance 52.165%). The result of a principal component factor analysis for dependent variable is shown in Table 4. The related factor loadings for each factor are above .40(Wheaton, 1987), it can be stated that the results show the constructive and convergent validity.

<Table 5> The Result of the Factor Analysis & Reliability Test for the Independent Variables

Items	Pay Satisfaction	Promotional Opportunities	Perceived Organizational Support	Relationship with Co-workers	Relationship with Supervisors	Task Significance	Performance Appraisal
#1	.673	.107	.062	.107	.074	.063	.121
#2	.723	-.040	.108	.170	-.041	.205	.352
#3	.538	.242	.072	.175	.126	.039	-.231
#4	.067	.533	.207	-.014	.063	.106	-.243
#5	.020	.632	.301	.096	.041	.202	.186
#6	-.034	.642	.072	.384	.290	.236	.075
#7	.247	-.091	.632	.175	.122	.019	.132
#8	.253	.034	.583	.043	-004	.108	.045
#9	.014	.245	.736	.074	.254	.207	-.084
#10	-.037	.342	.072	.616	.037	.149	.342
#11	-.033	-.032	.106	.543	.104	.073	.186
#12	.226	.329	.075	.683	.293	.107	.264
#13	.153	.037	.188	.228	.783	.053	.042
#14	.306	.126	-.305	.126	.725	.263	-.163
#15	.025	-.163	.207	.062	.674	.063	-.242
#16	.106	.062	.103	-.205	.045	.627	-.139
#17	.263	.196	.204	.075	.108	.597	.107
#18	.017	.205	-.089	.107	.088	.702	.086
#19	-.174	.072	.109	.302	.205	.196	.592
#20	.036	-.107	.206	-.105	.099	.063	.655
#21	.094	.205	.304	.255	.106	.204	.702
Eigen value	11.401	3.386	3.168	2.485	2.129	1.923	1.665
Variance(%)	22.337	6.702	6.041	5.522	4.731	3.732	3.100
Cumulative variance(%)	25.337	29.039	35.080	40.602	45.333	49.065	52.165
Alpha	.804	.742	.695	.702	.843	.705	.683

2. Hypothesis Testing

Using ordinary least squares regression, we included the dependent variable, job satisfaction, in an equation with the 12 independent variables. Both standardized (B) and unstandardized (b) regression coefficients are reported to show the relative contribution and predictive power of each factor. The overall model for job satisfaction has a strong R2 value of .493 and an adjusted R2 value of .451

<Table 6> Multiple Regression Results

Variables	B	b	Probability
Pay	.331	.163	.000
Promotional Opportunities	.311	.130	.000
Perceived Organizational Support	.347	.201	.000
Relationship with Co-workers	.302	.142	.000
Relationship with Supervisors	.313	.169	.001
Task Significance	.359	.175	.001
Performance Appraisal	.381	.148	.002
Gender	.232	.132	.001
Age	.268	.091	.007
Education	.218	.042	.091
Job Level	.283	.055	.002
Public Spirit	.335	.183	.001
Intercept		-.081	.295
R2	.493
Adjusted 2	.451
F	47.5
Probability	.001

According to the analysis, all the organizational variables tested were statistically significant factors of job satisfaction. In contrast, three of five personal attributes tested appeared as a significant predictor of job satisfaction.

As hypothesized, the availability of promotion(B = .311, p<.000), and satisfaction with pay (B = .331, p <.000) displayed influential effects on job satisfaction. These two factors were among the model's most important predictors of job satisfaction. This means these two factors are still playing very important roles for the development of local employee job satisfaction in modern public sector, which couldn't seem to be denied in any organization in any time.

Hypothesis 3 is supported by the results, with perceived organizational support having strong effects on job satisfaction of public employees at all levels(B = .347, p <.000). It means that this variable is the strongest variable among all the independent variables in determining job satisfaction.

Hypotheses 4 through 5 examined the causal relationship between various organizational factors and job satisfaction. They were all found to have moderately significant effects on job satisfaction: co-work(B = .302, p <.000) and supervision(B = .313, p <.001). In other words, as employee's perceptions of co-work and supervision increased, so did job satisfaction. It means job satisfaction decreased as employee perceptions regarding these two factors declined, reaching levels of statistical significance in the model. In particular, good relations with immediate supervisors must have a significant effect on employee job satisfaction statistically.

As expected in Hypothesis 6, a clear understanding of the task contribution has, also, pivotal and congruous effects on job satisfaction of public employees at all levels(B = .359, p <.001).

And there seems to be a strong positive causal relationship between performance appraisal satisfaction and job satisfaction (B = .381, p <.000) was also confirmed by the results (see Hypothesis 7). This finding provides additional evidence of the need for local governments to develop evaluation processes perceived as fair and equitable by their employees. Because performance appraisal satisfaction is influenced by factors such as employee perceptions of its timeliness, accuracy, usefulness, and feedback procedures, research focusing on rater appraisal training, accountability, and communications may provide clues about ways government officials can develop a sense of fairness in the appraisal process(Bretz, Milkovich, and Read, 1992; Mero and Motowidlo, 1995; Kikoski, 1999).

As predicted in Hypothesis 8, gender was a significant, and positive, influencing factor to job satisfaction. Perhaps the most interesting finding of the study was the importance of gender in explaining variations in employee job satisfaction. Results from the regression analysis indicate that gender plays an insignificant role in explaining variation in the dependent variable. The outwardly discrepant coefficients may be due to some phony effects that may have given to the results. As we know, female may experience a lower level of job satisfaction than male owing to discriminatory personnel decisions in the organization, specially the discrimination sex in Korean public organization affected by traditional Confucian ideas is more serious than any other country in the world. However, recently such discriminatory effects have been minimized largely through the enforcement of equal employment opportunity by the government.

And age had no effect on job satisfaction levels of local employees, which is contrary to expectation suggested in the above Hypothesis 9. And Hypothesis 10 is not supported by the results, with education having no effect on the job satisfaction of local government employees. The estimated coefficients on education show that, other things being equal, male employees at lower levels are likely to be more satisfied with their jobs than comparable female employees. But they are likely to be less satisfied with their jobs than their female counterparts as they move up to higher levels.

And job level was a significant predictor of job satisfaction (B =.253, p <.006). Specifically, supervisors and mangers at high position expressed higher levels of satisfaction than non-supervisory employees, when all other factors held constant(see Hypothesis 11).

Finally, Hypothesis 12 is supported by the results, with public spirit having much effect on the job satisfaction of local government employees. The results may be from the fact that the recent increased unemployment rate of private sector in Korea has contributed to the winning wide recognition about public employees serving the public, resulting in their increased job satisfaction.

As tested above, A series of hypothesis formulated in this study can be summarized as follows.

<Table 7> Summary of Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis	Contents	Accept/Reject
H1	There will be a positive causal relationship between satisfaction with opportunities for promotions and job satisfaction.	Accept
H2	There will be a positive causal relationship between satisfaction with pay and job satisfaction.	Accept
H3	There will be a positive causal relationship between POS and job satisfaction.	Accept
H4	Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they have better relationships with their co-workers, an evenly distributed workload among co-workers.	Accept
H5	Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they have better relationships with supervisors.	Accept
H6	Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they perceive their jobs contribute more to organizational missions.	Accept
H7	There will be a positive causal relationship between employee performance appraisal satisfaction and job satisfaction.	Accept
H8	There will be a significant causal relationship statistically between employee gender and job satisfaction.	Accept
H9	There will be a significant causal relationship statistically between employee age and job satisfaction.	Reject
H10	There will be a significant causal relationship statistically between employee education and job satisfaction.	Reject
H11	There will be a positive causal relationship between job level and job satisfaction.	Accept
H12	Public employees are more satisfied with their jobs if they have stronger desires to serve the public.	Accept

As discussed above, of the 12 independent variables registered in the model, Perceived organizational support, performance appraisal, and public spirit clearly emerged as an powerful determinant of variation in overall job satisfaction among public employees. Of course, it has been said to be very difficult to measure public service correctly because of its property. But the significance of perceived organizational support, performance appraisal, and public spirit in this model indicates that the measurement of the  employees' performance in public sector can do completely their part in stirring employees' effort for achieving public needs, eventually other things being equal, the more job satisfaction, the higher their efficiency. This suggest that local governments should strive to eliminate discomfort and distrust of the performance appraisal process and develop work environments that foster mutually trustworthy relationships with supervisors, perhaps through better communications and employee empowerment. On the other hand, hypotheses based on individual characteristics show somewhat mixed results, with age and education having positive effects on job satisfaction of employees at lower levels and with job level and public spirit having much effects on job satisfaction of public employees at all level.

According to Hackman and Oldham (1976), employees with strong needs for personal growth responded lot more positively to the intrinsic factors of their job than ones with weak needs for personal growth. In other words, if we had controlled the variable of the personal need for growth in examining the relationship between job context factors and job characteristics and job satisfaction, the results might be consistent with previous studies.

Consistent with previous research conducted in both the public and private sectors, job satisfaction of local government employees is significantly influenced by perceptions of employee satisfaction with promotional opportunities, pay, and fringe benefits. Promotional opportunities, in particular, played a major role in the model and were very powerful determinant of employee job satisfaction. This result demonstrates that dissatisfaction factor such as pay, promotion, and the relationship between the supervisor and the subordinates must play an important roles in increasing job satisfaction. Because the public sector is so labor intensive, any increases in job satisfaction and productivity will depend heavily on achieving a good employee-environment fit.

These results, theoretically, challenge Herzberg's two-factor theory of job satisfaction. As known, his two-factor theory suggested that hygiene/dissatisfaction factors(work conditions, pay, promotion, the relationship with co-workers and supervisor) only help to reduce dissatisfaction and that satisfiers are actual determinants of job satisfaction. In this study, hygiene factors such as supervision and the relationship with co-workers are more important factors for job satisfaction than any other job factors.

And satisfaction with the performance appraisal process as well as good relationships with supervisors had significant effects on overall job satisfaction of local government employees. These results suggest that local governments should strive to eliminate discomfort and distrust of the performance appraisal process and develop work environments that foster mutually trustworthy relationships with supervisors, perhaps through better communications and employee empowerment.

From above results, we can presume that for promoting public employees' job satisfaction, the rigid bureaucratic rules and procedures have to be simplified, their job have to be redesigned to have more autonomy, mutually trustworthy relationships and communication between supervisors and employees are strongly recommended.

V. Conclusion

The study was to increase our knowledge of the factors of job satisfaction among local government employees. Compare to private employees, public workers have long been neglected in the job satisfaction literature. Through this study, we could understand the characteristics of public sector employees' job more clearly and identify the area to be improved in their job. This study is, admittedly, to expand our understanding about the public servants' attitude playing a very important roles in determining job satisfaction.

The results, also, support hypotheses concerning job characteristics by showing that pay satisfaction, promotional opportunity, perceived organizational support, and task significance have consistently significant effects on the job satisfaction of public  government employees. These findings may provide a useful linkage between worker attitudes and performance. Of course, job satisfaction does not directly affect performance outcomes, but we can expect that it stimulates changes in coping behavior and in turn may affect performance. Accordingly, only if the moderate findings between job satisfaction and worker performance exist, the measurement of performance can be enhanced by using these influential variables.

Two important implications can be drawn from this study. First, the results show  perceived organizational support is one of the most important determinants of the job satisfaction of public employees. These results clearly suggest that organizations should recognize that a critical component of employees' job satisfaction is organization's concern toward employees. To foster such state, organizations should share a clear sense of goals with employees by allowing them to become part of the process for developing organizational goals. Studies have shown that employees working in the organizations where they share similar goals are likely to strive to uphold these goals. As a result, they will have greater job satisfaction and better performance.

And the results from this study, also, indicate that the broader organizational context that surrounds jobs (such as co-worker and supervisory relationships) must be taken into account to find how individuals feel about their jobs. Studies have shown that much of individuals' job satisfaction may derive from interactions within the broader job context, and not simply from the fulfillment of personal needs. It is, accordingly, imperative that organizations develop a mutually trustworthy relationship with employees by focusing on the importance of communication as well as teaching managers to communicate effectively with employees.

Former Vice President Gore(1994) remarked on the new challenges facing the federal government and its executives, pointing out that as organizations become more complex and tasks become more specialized, organizations must create and maintain a teamwork environment to foster a more cooperative and supportive relationship with employees.

On the other hand, the study may have some intrinsic limitations derived from methodology. The generality of these findings is limited because they are based on data from only one city, which may distort the intrinsic fact. Any future studies including these variables should attempt to cope with the limitations of the present study. Thus, the results reported here must be considered tentative until replicated with other samples drawn from other public sector settings. Further studies may want to include variables such as motivation level, social behaviors, organizational  citizenship behaviors, and people satisfaction could be used as measures of performance. In addition, for improving the significance of the study, it is necessary to collect no less than 500 questionnaires including over 5 local governments, encouraging us to do so in the next study. Longitudinal studies are also needed to offset the disadvantages of cross-sectional designs, seeking to expand the pool of potential explanatory variables as well additional control variables.

Nevertheless, the study makes a useful contribution to the literature about this area, stimulating researchers to analyze the variables which are not explained here but are very important for making more elaborate and clear perception about the relationship between job satisfaction and performance. Because the model proposed here can serve as fundamentals of developing an new integrated model of job satisfaction, focusing on forming a theoretical framework that integrates multiple sets of variables to understand the interrelated determinants of job satisfaction of local government employees.

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김대원(金大源): 경북대학교에서 행정학박사 학위(논문: 지방세 수입예측 모형)를 취득하고, 현재 신라대학교 법행정학부 교수로 재직 중이다. 학문적 관심분야는 재무행정론, 지방재정론, 행정관리론 등이며, 주요 논문으로는 “DEA Model and Its Application in Local Government”(2005, 한국행정논집), “Analysis of X-inefficiency in Local Government using Nonparametric Approach”(2004, 한국행정논집), “Budget Watch and Finance Democracy”(2004, 한국행정논집) 등이 있다. 주요 저서로는「지방재정제도의 이론과 실제」(공저, 2002), 「행정학원론」(공저, 2004) 등이 있다.<E-mail: dwkim@silla.ac.kr>

박철민(朴喆敏): 경북대학교에서 행정학박사 학위(논문: 공․사조직의 조직몰입 영향변인 및 결과변인 비교)를 취득하고, 현재 (재)부산인적자원개발원 연구위원으로 재직 중이다. 학문적 관심분야는 조직관리론, 인적자원개발론, 연구방법론 등이며, 주요 논문으로는 “An Empirical Testing on the Effects of Conflict Types on Organizational Effectiveness of Local Government Employees: Focused on the Analysis of Intermediating Effect of Task Types”(2005, 한국지방자치학회보), “Public Employees's Attitude on Application of a Learning Organization to Public Sector”(2005, 한국행정논집), “조직공정성이 상관신뢰와 공직몰입에 미치는 영향”(2003, 한국행정학보) 등이 있다. 주요 저서로는「지역전략산업 인력양성 프로그램 개발」(공저, 2005) 등이 있다.

<E-mail: cmpark@bhrdi.or.kr/논문접수일: 2006. 1. 10/심사완료일: 2006. 2. 28>

Williams, Larry J. and John T. Hazer. (1986). Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction and Commitment in Turnover Models: A Reanalysis Using Latent Variables Structural Equation Methods, Journal of Applied Psychology. 71: 219-231.